關(guān)鍵詞： 媒介教育 媒介素養(yǎng) 文化研究方法 預(yù)防方式 媒介教育的發(fā)展歷史 媒介教育理論 數(shù)字化 在線教育

[摘要]： 本文意在考察研究媒介教育的本質(zhì)及其在美國的施行狀況。全文分為五個(gè)部分：第一部分論述了美國在媒介教育方面遠(yuǎn)遠(yuǎn)落后于其他英語國家的原因。第二部分從三個(gè)階段（預(yù)防階段、面對階段、轉(zhuǎn)變階段）對美國媒介教育的歷史進(jìn)行了簡單的回顧。第三和第四部分從概念與應(yīng)用的層面對媒介教育加以分析。最后的第五部分探討了美國的媒介教育未來將要面對的挑戰(zhàn)，所涉及的包括媒介教育的集中與擴(kuò)展、從運(yùn)動(dòng)變?yōu)榻逃深A(yù)及新技術(shù)帶來的影響等。本文的結(jié)論是，美國的媒介教育需要不斷地進(jìn)步革新從而達(dá)到一個(gè)更加令人滿意的水平。

Abstract: This paper attempts to examine what media education is and how it functions in the United States from five perspectives: introduction， a brief history， conceptual issues， application issues， and future challenges. The introduction lays down the reasons why the United States is far behind other English speaking nations in media education. The second section examines the history of media education in the United States from three stages: inoculation phase， facing-it phase， and transitional phase. The third and fourth sections analyze the media education from conceptual and application levels. Finally in the fifth section， future challenges facing the centralization and expansion of media education， from movement to educational intervention， and the impact of new technology are discussed. It concludes that a continuous reform is needed for the media education in the United States to reach a more satisfactory level. [China Media Research. 2007; 3(3): 87-103] Keywords: media education， media literacy， cultural studies approach， inoculation approach， history of media education， media education theories， digitalization， online education

未來的挑戰(zhàn) 美國媒介教育在未來將要遇到的挑戰(zhàn)可分為三個(gè)方面：媒介教育的集中與擴(kuò)展、從運(yùn)動(dòng)變?yōu)榻逃深A(yù)、新技術(shù)帶來的影響。 集中與擴(kuò)展 從上文有關(guān)概念問題與應(yīng)用問題的描述中我們可以看出，媒介教育的多種定義——無視其名目如何——都在向著同一個(gè)方向靠攏，即接受“媒介教育是以培養(yǎng)媒介素養(yǎng)為目的的一個(gè)過程”。它意在通過獲得接觸、分析和評(píng)價(jià)媒介作品的能力，并且同時(shí)獲得離開學(xué)校后的就業(yè)能力，從而培養(yǎng)起批判性思維。然而，由于媒介教育的執(zhí)行與評(píng)價(jià)受中央的或國家性政策指導(dǎo)，因此這對于美國來說仍是一個(gè)巨大的挑戰(zhàn)。 在澳大利亞、加拿大、英國和幾乎所有的歐洲國家，媒介教育都在國家層面擁有堅(jiān)實(shí)的支撐力量。然而與這些國家不同，對于美國來說，制定全國性的媒介教育課程和政策似乎有些不太現(xiàn)實(shí)。由于美國的教育體系分由五十個(gè)獨(dú)立的州來進(jìn)行操作和管理，并且明顯受到家長和社會(huì)團(tuán)體的影響，因此要想建立起一個(gè)統(tǒng)一了各種利益與各州目標(biāo)的中心式計(jì)劃幾乎是不可能的。所以，美國是否應(yīng)該尋求某種替代性的方式——比如由Thoman（1990）提出的以家長或家庭為中心的方法——來解決這種地方分權(quán)的問題？這要留待媒介教育者們來回答了。 對媒介教育的內(nèi)在成分和外部聯(lián)系加以擴(kuò)展是美國的媒介教育者們需要面對的另一個(gè)問題。一直以來，媒介教育關(guān)注于英文的書面文本；而在信息爆炸的今天，我們還需要通過廣告、電影、電腦、報(bào)紙、電視等對其他一些信息形式（比如語言形式、聽覺形式、視覺形式）加以關(guān)注——不僅包括書面文字，還包括藥物濫用、暴力、色情、消費(fèi)主義、社會(huì)不公等主題。此外，這種擴(kuò)展還涉及社會(huì)研究、科學(xué)、行為藝術(shù)等學(xué)科（Allen， 1992）。換句話說，對媒介教育的內(nèi)在成分加以擴(kuò)展、對跨學(xué)科的媒介教育加以設(shè)計(jì)，這是另一個(gè)需要媒介教育者們集中智慧加以解決的問題。 媒介教育的外部聯(lián)系是指學(xué)校內(nèi)的媒介教育體系與外界團(tuán)體（包括家長、社會(huì)團(tuán)體、非營利性組織、商業(yè)公司等）之間的關(guān)系（Christ和Hynes，2006；Masterman，1997）。如果學(xué)校里的媒介教育要與外界團(tuán)體進(jìn)行協(xié)作，課堂自主性、教學(xué)法、教育目標(biāo)和行政管理政策將會(huì)如何受到外部團(tuán)體的影響（比如說由于不同的地區(qū)信仰、家長的過度參與、來自于商業(yè)機(jī)構(gòu)的捐款及人力物力支持[Brown，1998；Hobbs，1998b；Kellner和Share，2005]），這是美國的媒介教育將在未來遇到的另一個(gè)挑戰(zhàn)。 從社會(huì)運(yùn)動(dòng)到教育干預(yù) 作為一種社會(huì)運(yùn)動(dòng)，要求建立媒介教育計(jì)劃的活動(dòng)已經(jīng)結(jié)束了強(qiáng)烈要求社會(huì)承認(rèn)的第一階段，而開始在地區(qū)/國家的層面上接受官方的正式批準(zhǔn)（Bazalgette，1997）。媒介素養(yǎng)的進(jìn)步成為大家所向往的教育目標(biāo)，這實(shí)在鼓舞人心。但是這一社會(huì)運(yùn)動(dòng)是否已轉(zhuǎn)變成一場有效的教育干預(yù)，仍然是一個(gè)問題。Tyner（2000）指出，社會(huì)運(yùn)動(dòng)中常見的喊口號(hào)式的做法仍然存在于媒介教育的發(fā)展過程中，具有不確定、緊迫和夸張等特點(diǎn)；這種表達(dá)方式讓教育者們很難在媒介教育中制定明確而連貫的理論原則。換句話說，參與教育工作的人們很難對這種語言加以理解和接受，這就影響到了他們?yōu)槊浇榻逃膶W(xué)校改革做出貢獻(xiàn)。因此就Tyner看來，“如何闡明媒介教育的目標(biāo)（這與學(xué)校文化是協(xié)調(diào)一致的）”是一個(gè)教育者們需要繼續(xù)努力的問題。 Bazalgette（1997）指明，為了制定出一套合理有效的媒介教育計(jì)劃，我們需要突破媒介教育運(yùn)動(dòng)發(fā)展第一階段中的五條局限：（1）媒介教育是激進(jìn)人士的天下；（2）學(xué)習(xí)進(jìn)步收效甚微；（3）媒介素養(yǎng)有多種概念；（4）媒介教師與媒介從業(yè)人員之間存在很大的差別；（5）缺乏研究和充分掌握信息情況下的辯論。如今，雖然情況已經(jīng)大大改善，但是這些局限還是或多或少地存在。Aufderheide（2004）也有過類似的擔(dān)心。他指出，當(dāng)前的美國媒介教育需要解決四個(gè)明確而急迫的需要：（1）數(shù)據(jù)問題——研究者們需要獲得更多的基礎(chǔ)信息來支持媒介教育的發(fā)展；（2）公共性問題——需要制定連貫一致的概念和定義，從而可以建立起面向多種媒介教育計(jì)劃的公共平臺(tái)；（3）基礎(chǔ)建設(shè)問題——需要建立起一個(gè)全國性的機(jī)構(gòu)來制定媒介教育發(fā)展的計(jì)劃與步驟，從而將各方面的努力統(tǒng)一協(xié)調(diào)起來；（4）有效益的、良性的關(guān)系問題——需要在政策制定者、社會(huì)團(tuán)體和外界組織之間建立起互動(dòng)的橋梁。對以上這些局限與急迫的需要加以了解，可以幫助教育者們更好地面對媒介教育在未來將要遇到的挑戰(zhàn)。 新技術(shù)的影響 新技術(shù)不僅改變了我們的生活方式，還給二十一世紀(jì)的媒介教育帶來巨大的挑戰(zhàn)（CML Reflection Resource，2002-2003；Kubey，1997）。新技術(shù)的影響主要來源于媒介的數(shù)字化（Abernathy和Allen，2003；Buckingham和Sefton-Green，1997；Fischetti，2000；Mammett和Barrell，2002；Olson和Pollard，2004；Tyner，1998；Warnick，2001）。據(jù)Olson和Pollard（2004），數(shù)字化的巨大力量、尤其是將傳統(tǒng)媒介（如報(bào)紙）和數(shù)字媒介（如計(jì)算機(jī)）加以混合與會(huì)聚的能力還沒有被美國媒介教育所重視。媒介的數(shù)字化趨勢要求我們以新的方式從三個(gè)方面看待媒介教育：新數(shù)字美學(xué)、認(rèn)知效應(yīng)、社會(huì)效應(yīng)。 數(shù)字化趨勢是指以二進(jìn)制碼對印刷與電子媒介加以整合，將傳統(tǒng)媒介轉(zhuǎn)變?yōu)閿?shù)字媒介，并由此產(chǎn)生一整套完全不同的生產(chǎn)與分配模式。我們應(yīng)在媒介教育的范疇內(nèi)對數(shù)字化趨勢在美學(xué)和在觀眾認(rèn)知方面產(chǎn)生的效應(yīng)加以研究，不僅僅關(guān)注于“數(shù)字環(huán)境中的計(jì)算機(jī)和網(wǎng)絡(luò)媒介，而且要關(guān)注數(shù)字化媒介如何影響了傳統(tǒng)媒介環(huán)境”（Olson和Pollard，2004，p. 249）。對媒介教育產(chǎn)生影響的數(shù)字美學(xué)特征可能包括交互性、操縱性，對所有媒介的內(nèi)容進(jìn)行目標(biāo)的預(yù)設(shè)與再設(shè)，有意識(shí)的虛擬經(jīng)驗(yàn)的創(chuàng)造，并嘗試以之為產(chǎn)生新內(nèi)容的一種方式等。 數(shù)字化趨勢在認(rèn)知方面產(chǎn)生的效應(yīng)源于它的非線性特征和對數(shù)字媒體內(nèi)容要求方面的期望的創(chuàng)建，這直接影響著學(xué)生們使用媒介的方式。最后，數(shù)字化媒介所產(chǎn)生的最重要的社會(huì)效應(yīng)是“去大眾化”（Olason和Pollard，2004）。以前那種數(shù)量很大且成分均一的觀眾群體將逐漸消失；數(shù)字化媒介通過讓觀眾們根據(jù)自己的意愿選擇媒介信息，從而形成具有針對性的訴求，而不是大眾化的訴求。對于這種從大眾化向個(gè)人化的轉(zhuǎn)變，媒介教育應(yīng)該思考一下它對于美國文化和美國民主生活方式的意義。 結(jié)論 本文從四個(gè)方面對美國媒介教育的發(fā)展?fàn)顩r進(jìn)行了回顧：一、論述了美國媒介教育落后于大多數(shù)英語國家的原因。二、分三個(gè)階段對美國的媒介教育發(fā)展歷史進(jìn)行了簡單的描述：預(yù)防階段、面對階段和轉(zhuǎn)變階段。三、對有關(guān)美國媒介教育的定義與性質(zhì)等概念問題進(jìn)行了分析。四、對“如何設(shè)計(jì)與發(fā)布媒介教育課程”及“如何評(píng)價(jià)媒介教育計(jì)劃”等應(yīng)用問題進(jìn)行了討論。最后，筆者指出未來美國媒介教育將會(huì)遇到的三種挑戰(zhàn)：“媒介教育的集中與擴(kuò)展”，“從運(yùn)動(dòng)變?yōu)榻逃深A(yù)”及“新技術(shù)帶來的影響”。 總之，本文力圖反映描繪的是美國媒介教育的過去、現(xiàn)在與將來。盡管筆者不曾冀望能詳盡展現(xiàn)其全貌，但在該領(lǐng)域繼續(xù)進(jìn)行改革的必要性已經(jīng)昭顯：我們需要不斷地進(jìn)步，從而在概念上改善模糊、極端和分裂的狀況，在操作上改善課程設(shè)計(jì)和評(píng)價(jià)的矛盾與不一致現(xiàn)象，同時(shí)正視由新的媒介技術(shù)所帶來的未來挑戰(zhàn)。如此，美國才能建立起合理完善的媒介教育體系、與其他國家分享經(jīng)驗(yàn)、并最終為世界的媒介教育做出自己的貢獻(xiàn)。

Notes. 1. A sample list of active non-profit media education associations in the United States: Action Coalition for Media Education (http://www.acmecoalition.org/) Alliance for a Media Literate America (http://www.amlainfo.org/) Assessment in Media Education (http://www.readingonline.org/newliteracies/worsnop/) Association for Media Literacy (http://www.aml.ca/home/) Center for Media Literacy (http://www.medialit.org/) Center of Media Studies (http://www.mediastudies.rutgers.edu/cmsyme.html) Citizens for Media Literacy (http://www.main.nc.us/cml/) Commercial Alert (http://www.commercialalert.org/) Media Education Foundation (http://www.mediaed.org/) Media Matters: A National Media Education Campaign (http://www.aap.org/advocacy/mediamatters.htm) Media Watch (http://www.mediawatch.com/) National Telemedia Council (http://www.nationaltelemediacouncil.org/) Pauline Center for Media Studies (http://www.daughtersofstpaul.com/mediastudies/) 2. 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Media literacy & core curriculum: Initial results from the evaluation of a new media-literacy program funded by the U.S. Department of Education. Threshold: Exploring the Future of Education， winter， 5-7. Grady， D. A. (2006). Indirect measures: Interships， careers， and competitions. In W. G. Christ (Ed.)， Assessing media education: A resource handbook for educators and administrators (pp. 349-371). Mahwah， NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Hall， S.， & Whannel， P. (1964). The popular arts. Longdon: Hutchinson. Halloran， J.， & Jones， M. (1968). Learning about the media: communication and society. Paris: UNESCO. Halloran， J.， & Jones， M. (1992). The inoculation approach. In M. Alvarado & O. Boyd-Barrett (Eds.)， Media education: An introduction (pp. 10-13). London: BFI. Hart， A. (1997). Textual pleasures and moral dilemmas: Teaching media literacy in England. In R. Kubey (Ed.)， Media literacy in the information age (pp. 199-211). New Brunswick， NJ: Transaction. Hobbs， R. (1994). 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Mitigating the imitation of aggressive behavior by changing children's attitudes about media violence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology， 44， 899–910. Irwin， S. O. (2006). Direct measures: Embedded “authentic” assessment. In W. G. Christ (Ed.)， Assessing media education: A resource handbook for educators and administrators (pp. 397-420). Mahwah， NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Kellner， D.， & Share， J. (2005). Toward critical media literacy: Core concepts， debates， organizations， and policy. Discourse: Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education， 26(3)， 369-386. Kubey， R. (Ed.) (1997). Media literacy in the information age. New Brunswick， NJ: Transaction. Kubey， R. (1998). Obstacles to the development of media education in the U.S.. Journal of Communication， 48(1)， 58-69. Kubey， R. (2003). Why U.S. media education lags behind the rest of the English-speaking world. Television & New Media， 4(4)， 351-370. Kubey， R. (2004). Media literacy and the teaching of civics and social studies at the dawn of the 21st century. American Behavioral Scientist， 48(1)， 69-77. Kubey， R.， & Baker， F. (1999， October 27). Has media literacy found a curricular foothold? Retrieved March 3， 2006， from http://www.medialit.med.sc.edu/ edweek.htm Leavis， F.， & Thompson (1933). Culture and environment: The training of critical awareness. London: Chatto & Windus. Mammett， R.， & Barrell， B. (2002). Digital expressions: Media literacy and English language arts. Calgary， Canada: Detselig. Masterman， L. (1980). Teaching about television. London: Macmillan. Masterman， L. (1985). Teaching the media. London: Comedia. Masterman， L. (1997). A rationale for media education. In R. Kubey (Ed.)， Media literacy in the information age: Current perspectives (pp. 15-68). New Brunswick， NJ: Transaction. Media Awareness Network. (2006a). Media education in Canada: An overview. 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Retrieved March 7， 2006， from http://www.natcom.org/nca/files/ ccLibraryFiles/FILENAME/000000000119/K12%20Standards.pdf Olson， S. R.， & Pollard， T. (2004). The muse pixelipe: Digitalization and media literacy education. American Behavioral Scientist， 48(2)， 248-255. Ontario Ministry of Education (1989). Media literacy resource guide. Retrieved March 10， 2006， from http://www.medialit.org/reading_room/article338.html Parsons， P. (2006). Indirect measures: Institutional data， surveys， interviews， and advisory boards. In W. G. Christ (Ed.)， Assessing media education: A resource handbook for educators and administrators (pp. 329-347). Mahwah， NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Partnership for 21st Century Skills (2003). Learning for the 21st century: A report and mile guide for 21st century skills. Washington D. C.: Author. Piette， J.， & Giroux， L. (1997). The theoretical foundations of media education programs. In R. Kubey (Ed.)， Media literacy in the information age: Current perspectives (Vol. 6， pp. 89-134). New Brunswick， NJ: Transaction. Pungente， J. (1997). Live long and proper: Media literacy in the USA， Clipboard， 8(2)， Summer. Retrieved March 3， 2006， from http://interact.uoregon.edu/mediaLit/mlr /readings/articles/medialit.html Rosenbaum， J. (1994). Assessment: An overview. In W. G. Christ (Ed.)， Assessing communication education: A handbook for media， speech & theatre educators (pp. 3-29). Hillsdale， NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Quin， R.， & McMahon， B. (1997). Living with the tiger: Media curriculum issues for the future. In R. Kubey (Ed.)， Media literacy in the information age (pp. 307-321). New Brunswick， NJ: Transaction. Rubin， A. (1998). Media literacy: Editor’s note. Journal of Communication， 48(1)， 3-4. Scharrer， E. (2002/2003， December/January). Making a case for media literacy in the curriculum: Outcomes and assessment. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy， 46(4). Retrieved March 8， 2006， from http://www.readingonline.org/ newliteracies/lit_index.asp?HREF=/newliteracies/jaal/12-02_column/index. html Scheibe， C.， & Rogow ， F. (2004). 12 basic principles for incorporating media literacy and critical thinking into any curriculum. Ithaca， NY: Ithaca College. Sholle， D.， & Denski， S. (1994). Media education and the (re)production of culture. Westport， CT: Bergin & Garvey. Silverblatt， A. (1995). Media literacy: Keys to interpreting media messages. Westport， CT: Praeger. Sinartra， R. (1986). Visual literacy connections to thinking， reading and writing. Springfield， IL: Charles C. Thomas. Singer， D. G.， & Singer， J. L. (1998). Developing critical viewing skills and media literacy in children. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science， 557， 164–180. Thoman， E. (1990， July). New directions in media education. Paper presented at the international Conference of the University of Toulouse， France. Retrieved February 26， 2006， from http://www.medialit.org /reading_room/article126.html. Thoman， E. (1993). Skills and strategies for media education. Retrieved March 10， 2006， from http://www.medialit.org/reading_room/article1.html Thoman， E. (1995). The three stages of media literacy. Retrieved March 12， 2006， from http://www.media-awareness.ca/english/teachers/media_literacy/ what_is_media_literacy.cfm Thoman， E.， & Jolls， T. (2004). Media literacy – A national priority for a changing world. American Behavioral Scientist， 48(1)， 18-29. Tucker， D. E. (2006). Direct measures: Examinations. In W. G. Christ (Ed.)， Assessing media education: A resource handbook for educators and administrators (pp. 373-395). Mahwah， NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Tyner， K. (1991). The media education elephant. Retrieved March 6， 2006， from http://www.medialit.org/reading_room/ article429.html Tyner， K. (1998). Literacy in a digital world: Teaching and learning in the age of information. Mahwah， NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Tyner， K. (2000， May). Media education in the year 2000: Directions and challenges. Paper presented at the international conference on “Children， Youth and the Media”. Toronto， Ontario: Canada. Walsh， B. (2006a). A brief history of media education. Retrieved February 26， 2006， from http://interact.uoregon.edu/mediaLit/mlr/readings/articles/briefhistml.html Walsh， B. (2006b). Expanding the definition of media literacy. Retrieved March 3， 2006， from http://interact.uoregon.edu/mediaLit/mlr/readings/articles/ Expanding_Media_lit.html Warnick， B. (2001). Critical Literacy in a Digital Era: Technology， Rhetoric， and the Public Interest. Hillsdale， NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Williams， R. (1961). The long revolution. London: Chatto & Windus. Zettl， H. (1990). Sight sound motion: applied media aesthetics. Belmont， CA: Wadsworth. Appendix A. Major Events in the History of Media Literacy in the United States. I. Pre-1960: Early visionaries prepare the way 1. Marshall Mcluhan’s revolutional work on media. 2. John Culkin first invented the term “media literacy.” II. 1960-1970: First experiments with media in schools 1. Early experiments in school television production started in the early 1960s. 2. The first TV studio in Murray Avenue Elementary in Larchmont， New York was established in 1965. 3. Iowa educators pioneered “Media Now Curriculum” in mid-1960s. Its Southwest Iowa Learning Resources Center (LRC) became a precursor of today’s area education agencies and served as a community locus for an innovative film study program. 4. Ford Foundation funds experimental high school TV program started in the late 1960s. 5. A report announced that the “Screen Education” movement failed to survive the war in the late 1960s. III. 1970 - 1980: Early programs paved the way 1. Church groups introduced “Television Awareness Training” (TAT) for parents and adults in 1977. The Viewer’s Guide for Family and Community was developed. 2. Media & Values magazine began to chronicle growing influence of media culture and publish early activities for media literacy classroom in 1977. 3. The School of Public communication at Boston University， under a contract with the Department of Health， Education and Welfare， and US Office of Education， developed the “Television Literacy: Critical Television Viewing Skills” curriculum in 1979.

Knowledge Behaviors Attitudes 1. Recognize the centrality of communication in human endeavors. 2. Recognize the importance of communication for educational practices. 3. Recognize the roles of culture and language in media practices. 4. Identity personal and public media practices. 5. Identify personal and public media content， forms， and products. 6. Analyze the historical and current ways in which media affect people’s personal and public lives. 7. Analyze media ethical issues. 8. Access information in a variety of media forms. 9. Illustrate how people use media in their personal and public lives. 10. Are motivated to evaluate media and communication practices in terms of basic social values such as freedom， responsibility， privacy and public standards of decency.

II. Media literate communicators demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the complex relationships among audiences and media content. Knowledge Behaviors Attitudes 1. Identify media forms， content， and products. 2. Recognize that media are open to multiple interpretations. 3. Explain how audience members interpret meanings. 4. Describe how media practitioners determine the nature of audiences. 5. Explain how media socialize people. 6. Evaluate ideas and images in media with possible inpidual， social and cultural consequences. 7. Create standards to evaluate media content， forms， and products. 8. Illustrate how media content， forms， and audience interpretations are linked to viewing practices. 1. Are motivated to recognize the complex relationships among media content， forms， and audience practices

III. Media literate communicators demonstrate knowledge and understanding that media content is produced within social and cultural contexts.

Knowledge Behaviors Attitudes 1. Identify the production contexts of media content and products. 2. Identify the social and cultural constraints on the production of media. 3. Identify the social and cultural agencies that regulate media content and products. 4. Evaluate the ideas and aesthetics in media content and products. 5. Demonstrate how media content and products are produced within social and cultural contexts. 6. Demonstrate how social and cultural regulations affect media content and products. 7. Are motivated to examine the relationships among media content and products and the larger social and cultural contexts of their production.

IV. Media literate communicators demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the commercial nature of media.

Knowledge Behaviors Attitudes 1. Explain how media organizations operate. 2. Identify the social and cultural agencies that regulate media organizations. 3. Compare media organizations to other social and cultural organizations 4. Demonstrate the relationships between media organizations and media distribution practices. 5. Are motivated to analyze the historical and current ways in which media organizations operate in relationship to democratic processes.

V. Media literate communicators demonstrate ability to use media to communicate to specific audiences.

Knowledge Behaviors Attitudes 1. Identify suitable media to communicate for specific purposes and outcomes. 2. Identify the roles and responsibilities of media production teams. 3. Analyze their media work for technical and aesthetic strengths and weaknesses. 4. Recognize that their media work has inpidual， social， and ethical consequences. 5. Reflect upon how their media literacy work relates to events outside of school learning. 6. Practice multiple approaches to developing and presenting ideas. 7. Structure media messages to be presented in various media forms. 8. Assume accountability for the inpidual， social， and ethical outcomes of their work. 9. Are motivated to appreciate how their media literacy work enhances self-expression， education， and career opportunities

Source: National Communication Association (1998). The speaking， listening， and media literacy standards and competency statements for k-12 education. Annandale， VA: NCA.

[注釋]

[1]譯者注：加州的媒介素養(yǎng)中心是非營利的教育團(tuán)體，也是美國媒介素養(yǎng)教育的先驅(qū)者，提供媒介教育領(lǐng)導(dǎo)管理，公共教育，專業(yè)人才發(fā)展和全國性的教育資源；致力于提升和支持媒介教育在近用（accessing）、分析（analyzing）、評(píng)鑒（evaluating）與創(chuàng)造媒介內(nèi)容（creating media content）的四個(gè)架構(gòu)下，幫助年輕一代公民，發(fā)展21世紀(jì)民主社會(huì)和媒介文化生活所需的技能——批判思考和媒介制作，最終目標(biāo)希望能使公眾對于媒介訊息做出明智的抉擇。貫徹透過教育賦予權(quán)力的哲學(xué)理念（empowerment through education），其任務(wù)在轉(zhuǎn)化媒介素養(yǎng)理論研究為實(shí)用的信息、訓(xùn)練和教育的工具給教師、青年領(lǐng)導(dǎo)人、家長和兒童照顧者使用。見http://mediaportal.moe.gov.tw/front/bin/partprint.phtml?Part=web_03&Category=0&Style=1

[2]譯者注：指《文化和環(huán)境：培養(yǎng)批判意識(shí)》一書

[3]譯者注：美國憲法的第一修正案：“聯(lián)邦議會(huì)不得立法建立宗教，不得立法禁止宗教活動(dòng)自由；不得立法剝奪言論自由和出版自由；不得剝奪人民以和平方式集會(huì)或者向政府請?jiān)敢笊暝┑臋?quán)利。”這是美國新聞自由的法律根源。